Operating System

An operating system is a software program that controls internal activities of the computer hardware and provides user interface. Applications programs need to interact with the operating system for using hardware resources.

The operating system first loads (copied) the program into the computer’s main memory then the computer is turned on(switched on).

Operating system that supports a single user at a time known as single user operating system,such as Windows XP. Some like Linux, Unix etc supports multiple users at a time.

An Operating System performs processor management, memory management coma input and output management, file management, security management etc.

We can operate the System in two ways:-

GUI and CUI are two types of User Interfaces. GUI stands for Graphical

User Interface while CUI stands for Character User Interface.

(User Interface : User Interface comprises of everything the user can use to interact with the computer. It is basically the means by which the user and computer system can interact using input and output devices.

1. GUI ( Graphical User Interface)-

GUI stands for Graphical User Interface. This is a type of user interface
where user interacts with the computer using graphics. Graphics include icons, navigation bars, images etc. Mouse can be used while using this interface to interact with the graphics. It is a very user-friendly interface and requires no expertise. Eg: Windows has GUI.

The first GUI was developed by researchers at Xerox Palo Alto Research Center (PARC) in the ’70s. This research opened a whole new era of computer graphic innovations.

The first personal computer which used a modern graphical user interface was the Xerox Alto, developed in 1973. This was not a commercial product and was intended mainly for research at universities.

1981-1985

Xerox 8010 Star (released in 1981)

This was the first system that was referred to as a fully integrated desktop computer including applications and a GUI. It was known as “The Xerox Star”, later renamed “ViewPoint” and later again renamed to “GlobalView”.

Xerox 8010 Star,

Apple Lisa Office System 1 (released in 1983)

Also referred to as Lisa OS, which in this case is short for Office System. It was developed by Apple with the intention of being a document processing workstation.

Unfortunately this workstation didn’t last, it was killed by Apple’s Macintosh operating system that was more affordable.

There were upgrades to Lisa OS, Lisa OS 2 in 1983 and Lisa OS 7/7 3.1 in 1984, that upgraded the system itself, but not the graphical user interface.

Apple Lisa OS 1,

VisiCorp Visi On (released in 1984)

Visi On was the first desktop GUI developed for the IBM PC. This system was targeted towards big corporations and came with a high price tag. The GUI made use of a mouse, it had a built-in installer and help system and it didn’t use icons.

VisiCoprt Visi On,

Mac OS System 1.0 (released in 1984)

System 1.0 was the first operating system GUI developed for the Macintosh. It had several features of a modern operating system, being windows based with icons. The windows could be moved around with the mouse and files and folders could be copied by dragging and dropping onto the target location.

Apple Mac System 1.0,

Amiga Workbench 1.0 (released in 1985)

When first released, Amiga was ahead of its time. The GUI included features such as color graphics (four colors: black, white, blue, orange), preemptive multitasking, stereo sound and multi-state icons (selected and unselected).

Amiga Workbench 1.0,

Windows 1.0x (released in 1985)

In this year Microsoft finally caught up with the whole graphical user interface craze and released Windows 1.0, its first GUI based operating system (although no one would dare to refer to it as one). The system featured 32×32 pixel icons and color graphics. The most interesting feature (which later was omitted) was the icon of the animated analog clock.

Microsoft Windows 1.01,

GEM (released in 1985)

GEM (Graphical Environment Manager) was a windowing style GUI created by Digital Research, Inc. (DRI). It was initially created for use with the CP/M operating system on the Intel 8088 and Motorola 68000 microprocessors and was later developed to run on DOS as well. Most people will remember GEM as the GUI for the Atari ST computers. It was also used on a series Amstrad’s IBM compatible computers. It was the core for Ventura Publisher and a few other DOS programs. The GUI was also ported to other computers but did not gain popularity on them.

1986 – 1990

IRIX 3 (released in 1986, first release 1984)

The 64-bit IRIX operating system was created for UNIX. An interesting feature of this GUI is the support for vector icons. This feature was built into the GUI long before Mac OS X even existed.

Silicon Graphics IRIX 3.0,

GEOS (released in 1986)

The GEOS (Graphic Environment Operating System) operating system was developed by Berkeley Softworks (later GeoWorks). It was originally designed for the Commodore 64 and included a graphical word processor, called geoWrite and a paint program called geoPaint.

Windows 2.0x (released in 1987)

In this version, the actual management of the windows had significantly improved. The windows could be overlapped, resized, maximized and minimized.

Microsoft Windows 2.03,

OS/2 1.x (released in 1988)

OS/2 was originally co-developed by IBM and Microsoft, but in 1991 the two companies split up, with Microsoft incorporating the technology in its own Windows GUI and IBM developing OS/2 further. The GUI used in OS/2 was called “Presentation Manager”. This version of the GUI only supported monochrome, fixed icons.

Microsoft-IBM OS/2 1.1,

NeXTSTEP / OPENSTEP 1.0 (released in 1989)

Steve Jobs came up with the idea to create the perfect research computer for universities and research labs. This idea later evolved into a startup called NeXT Computer Inc.

The first NeXT computer was released in 1988, however significant advances were made in 1989 with the release of the NeXTSTEP 1.0 GUI, which later evolved into OPENSTEP.

The GUI’s icons were bigger (48×48) and it introduced more colors. The GUI was initially monochrome, but version 1.0 started supporting color monitors too. This screenshot gives you have a peek into what would become the modern GUIs.

NeXTSTEP 1.0,

OS/2 1.20 (released in 1989)

The next minor version upgrade of the GUI showed slight improvements in many areas. The icons looked nicer and the windows were smoother.

OS/2 1.2,

Windows 3.0 (released in 1990)

By this version, Microsoft had realized the real potential in GUI’s and started to significantly improve them.

The operating system itself supported standard and 386 enhanced modes, which made use of higher memory capacity than 640 KB and hard disk space, resulting in the ability to use higher screen resolutions and better graphics, such as Super VGA 800×600 and 1024×768.

Also, Microsoft hired Susan Kare to design the Windows 3.0 icons and to add a unified style to the GUI.

Microsoft Windows 3.0,

1991 – 1995

Amiga Workbench 2.04 (released in 1991)

Many improvements were made to this version of the GUI. The color scheme changed and a 3D look was introduced. The desktop could be divided vertically into screens of different resolutions and color depths, which nowadays seems a little odd. The default resolution of Workbench was 640×256, but the hardware supported larger resolutions too.

Commodore Amiga Workbench 2.04,

Mac OS System 7 (released in 1991)

Mac OS version 7.0 was the first Mac OS GUI which supported colors. Subtle shades of grey, blue and yellow were added to icons.

Apple Mac OS System 7.0,

Windows 3.1 (released in 1992)

This version of Windows included TrueType fonts which were pre-installed. This effectively made Windows a functional desktop publishing platform for the first time.

Previously, it was only possible to achieve such functionality in Windows 3.0 using the Adobe Type Manager (ATM) font system from Adobe. This version also contained a color scheme named Hotdog Stand, which contained bright hues of red, yellow and black.

This color scheme was designed to help people with some degree of color blindness see text/graphics on the screen easier.

OS/2 2.0 (released in 1992)

This was the first GUI that was subjected to international acceptance, usability and accessibility testing. The entire GUI was developed using object-oriented design. Every file and folder was an object which could be associated with other files, folders and applications. It also supported drag and drop functionality and templates.

IBM OS/2 2.0,

Windows 95 (released in 1995)

The user interface was completely re-designed since version 3.x. This was the first Windows version where a small close button was added to each window.

The design team gave states (enabled, disabled, selected, checked, etc.) to icons and other graphics. The famous Start button appeared for the first time.

This was a huge step forward for Microsoft regarding the operating system itself and the unified GUI.

Microsoft Windows 95,

1996 – 2000

OS/2 Warp 4 (released in 1996)

IBM released OS/2 Warp 4 which brought a significant facelift to the workspace.

Icons were placed on the desktop, where custom files and folders could also be created. The shredder appeared which was similar to Windows’ Recycle Bin or Mac OS’s Trash, except it deleted the file or folder instantly and didn’t store any additional copies for later retrieval.

IBM OS/2 Warp 4,

Mac OS System 8 (released in 1997)

256 color icons were the default in this version of the GUI. Mac OS 8 was one of the early adopters of isometric style icons, also called pseudo-3D icons. The platinum grey theme used here became a trademark for future versions of the GUI.

Apple Mac OS 8,

Windows 98 (released in 1998)

The icon styles were almost the same as in Windows 95, but the whole GUI could use more than 256 colors for rendering. Windows Explorer changed almost completely and the “Active Desktop” appeared for the first time.

Microsoft Windows 98,

KDE 1.0 (released in 1998)

This is how the KDE team described the project upon releasing version 1.0: “KDE is a network transparent, contemporary desktop environment for UNIX workstations. KDE seeks to fill the need for an easy to use desktop for Unix workstations, similar to the desktop environments found under the MacOS or Window95/NT. A completely free and open computing platform available to anyone free of charge including its source code for anyone to modify.”

BeOs 4.5 (released in 1999)

The BeOS operating system was developed for personal computers. It was originally written by Be In in 1991 to run on BeBox hardware. It was later further developed to take advantage of newer technologies and hardware such as symmetric multiprocessing by utilizing modular I/O bandwidth, pervasive multithreading, preemptive multitasking and a custom 64-bit journaling file system known as BFS. The BeOS GUI was developed on the principles of clarity and a clean, uncluttered design.

GNOME 1.0 (released in 1999)

GNOME desktop was mainly developed for Red Hat Linux, later it was developed for other Linux distributors as well.

Red Hat Linux GNOME 1.0.39,

2001 – 2005

Mac OS X (released in 2001)

In early 2000 Apple announced their new Aqua interface and in 2001 the company released it with their brand new operating system called Mac OS X.

The default 32 x 32 and 48 x 48 icons were changed to big 128 x 128 anti-aliased and semi-transparent icons.

Lots of criticism followed after the release of this GUI. Apparently users were not quite ready for such a big change, but soon enough they adopted the new style and today this GUI represents the basis of all Mac OS X operating systems.

Apple Mac OS X 10.1

Windows XP (released in 2001)

As Microsoft tends to change their GUI completely with every major operating system release, Windows XP was no exception. The GUI itself is skinnable, users could change the whole look and feel of the interface. The icons were 48 x 48 in size by default, rendered in millions of colors.

Microsoft Windows XP Professional,

KDE 3 (released in 2002)

Since version 1.0, the K Desktop Environment improved significantly. They polished all the graphics and icons and unified the whole user experience.

KDE 3.0.1,

2007 – 2009 (current)

Windows Vista (released in 2007)

This was Microsoft’s response to their competition. They also included quite a lot of 3D and animation. Since Windows 98, Microsoft has always tried to improve the desktop. With Windows Vista they released widgets and a somewhat improved replacement of the Active Desktop.

Microsoft Windows Vista,

Mac OS X Leopard (released in 2007)

With their 6th generation, Mac OS X system Apple, once again improved the user interface. The basic GUI is still the Aqua with its candy scroll bars and platinum grey, blue colors. The new GUI features a more 3D look, with the 3D dock and lots more animation and interactivity.

Apple Mac OS X 10.5 Leopard,

GNOME 2.24 (2008)

GNOME put a lot of effort into creating the themes and artwork into v2.2.4 as their aim is “to make your computer look good”. They ran a competition to collect some of the most intruiging desktop backgrounds that their contributors have produced for use in v2.24.

KDE (v4.0 Jan. 2008, v4.2 Mar. 2009)

Version 4 of K Desktop Environment produced many new improvements to the GUI such as animated, smooth, efficient window management and support for desktop widgets. The icons size are easily adjustable and almost every design element is much easier to configure. Some of the most noticeable changes include new icons, themes and sounds, which are provided by the Oxygen Project. These icons are more photorealistic. It is definitely a big improvement to the earlier versions of KDE. It can now also be run on Windows and Mac OS X platforms.

From Windows 1 to Windows 10: 29 years of Windows evolution

This article is more than 5 years old

Microsoft’s Windows operating system was first introduced in 1985. Over 29 years later a lot has changed, but what things have stayed the same?

Microsoft Windows has seen nine major versions since its first release in 1985. Over 29 years later, Windows looks very different but somehow familiar with elements that have survived the test of time, increases in computing power and – most recently – a shift from the keyboard and mouse to the touchscreen.

Here’s a brief look at the history of Windows, from its birth at the hands of Bill Gates with Windows 1 to the latest arrival under new Microsoft chief executive Satya Nadella.

Windows 1

This is where it all started for Windows. The original Windows 1 was released in November 1985 and was Microsoft’s first true attempt at a graphical user interface in 16-bit.

Development was spearheaded by Microsoft founder Bill Gates and ran on top of MS-DOS, which relied on command-line input.

It was notable because it relied heavily on use of a mouse before the mouse was a common computer input device. To help users become familiar with this odd input system, Microsoft included a game, Reversi (visible in the screenshot) that relied on mouse control, not the keyboard, to get people used to moving the mouse around and clicking onscreen elements.

Windows 2

Two years after the release of Windows 1, Microsoft’s Windows 2 replaced it in December 1987. The big innovation for Windows 2 was that windows could overlap each other, and it also introduced the ability to minimise or maximise windows instead of “iconising” or “zooming”.

The control panel, where various system settings and configuration options were collected together in one place, was introduced in Windows 2 and survives to this day.

Microsoft Word and Excel also made their first appearances running on Windows 2.

Windows 3

The first Windows that required a hard drive launched in 1990. Windows 3 was the first version to see more widespread success and be considered a challenger to Apple’s Macintosh and the Commodore Amiga graphical user interfaces, coming pre-installed on computers from PC-compatible manufacturers including Zenith Data Systems.

Windows 3 introduced the ability to run MS-DOS programmes in windows, which brought multitasking to legacy programmes, and supported 256 colours bringing a more modern, colourful look to the interface.

More important - at least to the sum total of human time wasted - it introduced the card-moving timesink (and mouse use trainer) Solitaire.

Windows 3.1

Windows 1 and 2 both had point release updates, but Windows 3.1 released in 1992 is notable because it introduced TrueType fonts making Windows a viable publishing platform for the first time.

Minesweeper also made its first appearance. Windows 3.1 required 1MB of RAM to run and allowed supported MS-DOS programs to be controlled with a mouse for the first time. Windows 3.1 was also the first Windows to be distributed on a CD-ROM, although once installed on a hard drive it only took up 10 to 15MB (a CD can typically store up to 700MB).

Windows 95

As the name implies, Windows 95 arrived in August 1995 and with it brought the first ever Start button and Start menu (launched with a gigantic advertising campaign that used the Rolling Stones’ Start Me Up, and a couple of months later Friends stars Jennifer Aniston and Matthew Perry. Could it be any more up-to-date?)

It also introduced the concept of “plug and play” – connect a peripheral and the operating system finds the appropriate drivers for it and makes it work. That was the idea; it didn’t always work in practice.

Windows 95 also introduced a 32-bit environment, the task bar and focused on multitasking. MS-DOS still played an important role for Windows 95, which required it to run some programmes and elements.

Internet Explorer also made its debut on Windows 95, but was not installed by default requiring the Windows 95 Plus! pack. Later revisions of Windows 95 included IE by default, as Netscape Navigator and NCSA Mosaic were popular at the time.

Windows 98

Released in June 1998, Windows 98 built on Windows 95 and brought with it IE 4, Outlook Express, Windows Address Book, Microsoft Chat and NetShow Player, which was replaced by Windows Media Player 6.2 in Windows 98 Second Edition in 1999.

Windows 98 introduced the back and forward navigation buttons and the address bar in Windows Explorer, among other things. One of the biggest changes was the introduction of the Windows Driver Model for computer components and accessories – one driver to support all future versions of Windows.

USB support was much improved in Windows 98 and led to its widespread adoption, including USB hubs and USB mice.

Windows ME

Considered a low point in the Windows series by many – at least, until they saw Windows Vista – Windows Millennium Edition was the last Windows to be based on MS-DOS, and the last in the Windows 9x line.

Released in September 2000, it was the consumer-aimed operating system twined with Windows 2000 aimed at the enterprise market. It introduced some important concepts to consumers, including more automated system recovery tools.

IE 5.5, Windows Media Player 7 and Windows Movie Maker all made their appearance for the first time. Autocomplete also appeared in Windows Explorer, but the operating system was notorious for being buggy, failing to install properly and being generally poor.

Windows 2000

The enterprise twin of ME, Windows 2000 was released in February 2000 and was based on Microsoft’s business-orientated system Windows NT and later became the basis for Windows XP.

Microsoft’s automatic updating played an important role in Windows 2000 and became the first Windows to support hibernation.

Windows XP

Arguably one of the best Windows versions, Windows XP was released in October 2001 and brought Microsoft’s enterprise line and consumer line of operating systems under one roof.

It was based on Windows NT like Windows 2000, but brought the consumer-friendly elements from Windows ME. The Start menu and task bar got a visual overhaul, bringing the familiar green Start button, blue task bar and vista wallpaper, along with various shadow and other visual effects.

ClearType, which was designed to make text easier to read on LCD screens, was introduced, as were built-in CD burning, autoplay from CDs and other media, plus various automated update and recovery tools, that unlike Windows ME actually worked.

Windows XP was the longest running Microsoft operating system, seeing three major updates and support up until April 2014 – 13 years from its original release date. Windows XP was still used on an estimated 430m PCs when it was discontinued.

Its biggest problem was security: though it had a firewall built in, it was turned off by default. Windows XP’s huge popularity turned out to be a boon for hackers and criminals, who exploited its flaws, especially in Internet Explorer, mercilessly - leading Bill Gates to initiate a “Trustworthy Computing” initiative and the subsequent issuance of to Service Pack updates that hardened XP against attack substantially.

Windows Vista

Windows XP stayed the course for close to six years before being replaced by Windows Vista in January 2007. Vista updated the look and feel of Windows with more focus on transparent elements, search and security. Its development, under the codename “Longhorn”, was troubled, with ambitious elements abandoned in order to get it into production.

It was buggy, burdened the user with hundreds of requests for app permissions under “User Account Control” - the outcome of the Trustworthy Computing initiative which now meant that users had to approve or disapprove attempts by programs to make various changes. The problem with UAC was that it led to complacency, with people clicking “yes” to almost anything - taking security back to the pre-UAC state. It also ran slowly on older computers despite them being deemed as “Vista Ready” - a labelling that saw it sued because not all versions of Vista could run on PCs with that label.

PC gamers saw a boost from Vista’s inclusion of Microsoft’s DirectX 10 technology.

Windows Media Player 11 and IE 7 debuted, along with Windows Defender an anti-spyware programme. Vista also included speech recognition, Windows DVD Maker and Photo Gallery, as well as being the first Windows to be distributed on DVD. Later a version of Windows Vista without Windows Media Player was created in response to anti-trust investigations.

Windows 7

Considered by many as what Windows Vista should have been, Windows 7 was first released in October 2009. It was intended to fix all the problems and criticism faced by Vista, with slight tweaks to its appearance and a concentration on user-friendly features and less “dialogue box overload”.

It was faster, more stable and easier to use, becoming the operating system most users and business would upgrade to from Windows XP, forgoing Vista entirely.

Handwriting recognition debuted in 7, as did the ability to “snap” windows to the tops or sides of the screen, allowing faster more automatic window resizing.

Windows 7 saw Microsoft hit in Europe with antitrust investigations over the pre-installing of IE, which led to a browser ballot screen being shown to new users allowing them to choose, which browser to install on first boot.

Windows 8

Released in October 2012, Windows 8 was Microsoft’s most radical overhaul of the Windows interface, ditching the Start button and Start menu in favour of a more touch-friendly Start screen.

The new tiled interface saw programme icons and live tiles, which displayed at-a-glance information normally associated with “widgets”, replace the lists of programmes and icons. A desktop was still included, which resembled Windows 7.

Windows 8 was faster than previous versions of Windows and included support for the new, much faster USB 3.0 devices. The Windows Store, which offers universal Windows apps that run in a full-screen mode only, was introduced. Programs could still be installed from third-parties like other iterations of Windows, but they could only access the traditional desktop interface of Windows.

The radical overhaul was not welcomed by many. Microsoft attempted to tread a fine line between touchscreen support and desktop users, but ultimately desktop users wanting to control Windows with a traditional mouse and keyboard and not a touchscreen felt Windows 8 was a step back. There were also too few touchscreens in use, or on offer, to make its touch-oriented interface useful or even necessary - despite the parallel rise of tablets such as the iPad, and smartphones, which had begun outselling PCs by the end of 2010.

Windows RT, which runs on ARM-based processors traditionally found in smartphones and non-PC tablets, was introduced at the same time as Windows 8 with the Microsoft Surface tablet. It looked and felt like Windows 8, but could not run traditional Windows applications, instead solely relying on the Windows Store for third-party apps.

Windows 8.1

A free point release to Windows 8 introduced in October 2013, Windows 8.1 marked a shift towards yearly software updates from Microsoft and included the first step in Microsoft’s U-turn around its new visual interface.

Windows 8.1 re-introduced the Start button, which brought up the Start screen from the desktop view of Windows 8.1. Users could also choose to boot directly into the desktop of Windows 8.1, which was more suitable for those using a desktop computer with a mouse and keyboard than the touch-focused Start screen.

Windows 10

Announced on 30 September 2014, Windows 10 has only been released as a test version for keen users to try. The “technical preview” is very much still a work in progress.

Windows 10 represents another step in Microsoft’s U-turn, bringing back the Start menu and more balance to traditional desktop computer users.

Some interesting features include the ability to switch between a keyboard and mouse mode and a tablet mode, for those computers like the Surface Pro 3 with a detachable keyboard.

Windows 10 – despite being the ninth version of Windows – is designed to unify all Windows platforms across multiple devices, including Windows Phone and tablets, with universal apps that can be downloaded from the Windows Store and run on all Windows devices.

It won’t be available until 2015, likely after Microsoft’s Build developer conference in April, so for now Windows 8.1 is the latest version of Windows.

From Windows 1 to Windows 10: 29 years of Windows evolution

This article is more than 5 years old

Microsoft’s Windows operating system was first introduced in 1985. Over 29 years later a lot has changed, but what things have stayed the same?

Samuel Gibbs

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Comments

Windows has changed drastically over the years, but somethings stay the same, through the rough and the smooth. Photograph: Gene Blevins/LA DailyNews/Corbis

Here’s a brief look at the history of Windows, from its birth at the hands of Bill Gates with Windows 1 to the latest arrival under new Microsoft chief executive Satya Nadella.

Windows 1

This is where it all started for Windows. The original Windows 1 was released in November 1985 and was Microsoft’s first true attempt at a graphical user interface in 16-bit.

Development was spearheaded by Microsoft founder Bill Gates and ran on top of MS-DOS, which relied on command-line input.

Windows 2

The control panel, where various system settings and configuration options were collected together in one place, was introduced in Windows 2 and survives to this day.

Microsoft Word and Excel also made their first appearances running on Windows 2.

Windows 3

More important - at least to the sum total of human time wasted - it introduced the card-moving timesink (and mouse use trainer) Solitaire.

Windows 3.1

Windows 1 and 2 both had point release updates, but Windows 3.1 released in 1992 is notable because it introduced TrueType fonts making Windows a viable publishing platform for the first time.

Windows 95

Windows 95 also introduced a 32-bit environment, the task bar and focused on multitasking. MS-DOS still played an important role for Windows 95, which required it to run some programmes and elements.

Windows 98

USB support was much improved in Windows 98 and led to its widespread adoption, including USB hubs and USB mice.

Windows ME

Windows 2000

The enterprise twin of ME, Windows 2000 was released in February 2000 and was based on Microsoft’s business-orientated system Windows NT and later became the basis for Windows XP.

Microsoft’s automatic updating played an important role in Windows 2000 and became the first Windows to support hibernation.

Windows XP

Arguably one of the best Windows versions, Windows XP was released in October 2001 and brought Microsoft’s enterprise line and consumer line of operating systems under one roof.

Windows Vista

PC gamers saw a boost from Vista’s inclusion of Microsoft’s DirectX 10 technology.

Windows 7

It was faster, more stable and easier to use, becoming the operating system most users and business would upgrade to from Windows XP, forgoing Vista entirely.

Handwriting recognition debuted in 7, as did the ability to “snap” windows to the tops or sides of the screen, allowing faster more automatic window resizing.

Windows 8

Released in October 2012, Windows 8 was Microsoft’s most radical overhaul of the Windows interface, ditching the Start button and Start menu in favour of a more touch-friendly Start screen.

Windows 8.1

Windows 10

Announced on 30 September 2014, Windows 10 has only been released as a test version for keen users to try. The “technical preview” is very much still a work in progress.

Windows 10 represents another step in Microsoft’s U-turn, bringing back the Start menu and more balance to traditional desktop computer users.

Some interesting features include the ability to switch between a keyboard and mouse mode and a tablet mode, for those computers like the Surface Pro 3 with a detachable keyboard.

It won’t be available until 2015, likely after Microsoft’s Build developer conference in April, so for now Windows 8.1 is the latest version of Windows.

2. CUI ( Character User Interface)-

CUI: CUI stands for Character User Interface. This is a type of user interface
where user interacts with computer using only keyboard. To perform any action a command is required. CUI also called CLI (command-line interface)It works by allowing the user to issue commands as one or more lines of text (referred to as command lines) to a program. Good examples CUIs are MS-DOS and the Windows Command Prompt.There are other command lines in addition to the ones mentioned above, namely, Terminal, and the Linux command line.

⇐ Unix / Linux Operating System ⇒

What is Linux ?

Linux is a multi user, multitasking (Many persons can use one machine at the same time)
operating system, also called time sharing operating system or a clone (नक़ल) of Unix.

What is Unix ?

Unix is a multitask and multi user operating system, developed in 1969 at AT's & T (American Telephone and Telegraphs) Bell Labs by :- Ken Thomson ('Unix'),Denis Ritchie ('C'), Douglas Mellroy
Linux is developed in August 25, 1991 by Linus Benedict Torvalds and has an official mascot (शुभ चिन्ह या लोगो पिक्चर) Penguin (A bird), which was choosen by Linus Torvalds.Linux is 32 Bit operating system or originally developed for 32 bit operating system P.C. Linux was written in C Language.Linux Os comes in very varieties which are called Distributions like - Debian, Ubuntu, Fedora, Centos, Red head, Opensuse, Kali Linux, etc.Linux is distributed a free software under a free software licence called the GNU/GPL (General Public Licence)

Note:- In 1994 the first version of Linux Kernel was on internet.

Note:- Bit are the formed by 0 (zero) and 1 (one), 32 bit based operating system or
microprocessor can handle a combination of 32 bit at a time such as 01001110001001110001011001001110.

Note:- The most popular 8 Bit microprocessor is Intel-8050.

Note:- 64 Bit microprocessor are used in very powerful minicomputers and workstations. An important 64 Bit microprocessor based computer is DEC- C (Digital Equipment Corporation) alpha server.

Advantage of Linux:-

Linux is a open source operating system (which means we have received it free of cost from internet with legal licence.
It is full secured (which means there are no need to any antivirus for this operating system)
It is also work on GUI (Graphical User Interface) and CUI (Command User Interface)
It's window is called X windows
It is Stable (It almost never crashes)

Disadvantage of Linux:-

All windows programs (Windows 7, Windows 8, Windows 10) are not run on the Linux.
For operate the Linux we should have the best knowledge on the command.
Hardware manufactured doesn't prepare drivers for linux operating system.

Why should you learn Linux ?

Google, Facebook and many other measure Internet sites use Linux Os.
Airplane and Auto-mobiles entertainment system and recent TV's run on Linux Os.
Even satellites and space centers use Linux Os.
Linux is used to run Robots in automatic manufacturing factories and more like in super computers.
Android phone and most of the smart phone are running Linux..

⏪ -: Elements of Linux: - ⏩

Kernel:-

Kernel is at the core of Linux operating system Or main part of Linux program. It is loaded into the memory as soon as the system startup and be loaded until you shutdown the machine or system.

Kernel is memory resident portion of Linux because it loaded into the memory first. It manages inpot and output (peripherals devices), maintaining time and date launching applications and error handling. In simple words we can say it control hardware (C.P.U), memory, etc.

There are need a permission to operate all hardware, so Kernel allows or control all hardware's, so it is called nervous system or function manager of operating system process. Kernel is a Heart of an operating system..

Shell:-

A Shell is a computer program that interface between User and Linux/Unix.

The shell surrounds of the kernel and interface between User and kernel. In Shell we can write the programs, comments, script. In simple words shell is the layer of programming that understands and executes the commands which is entered by User.

The first Shell Bourne Shell in 1969. the original Unix shell was written in the mid-1970 by Stephane R. Bourne at the AT & T's Bell Labs New Jersey, and most successful shell Bourne Again Shell (It is updated version of Bourne Shell) And released by GPL ( General public licence )

Shell is the interpreter program. It is interface between kernel and kernel interface between hardware.It will take the input from input devices such as keyboard and will send to kernel,Karnal
will send to hardware. hardware will execute send back reply to Karnal,
kernel to shell and shell will display the output.

-: How to check type of Shell :-

Search Terminal or Press Ctrl+Alt+T, Terminal will be opened.

echo space $shell ↩ ( echo $shell↩ )

$shell=bin/Bash↩

echo space $shell ↩ ( echo $shell↩

Note:- (Type the syntax no 1. for change your shell and Type the syntax no 2. for check again your shell)

-: File System & File Structure :-

Linux keeps all the devices and data in form of files in different locations. It contains a Root directory, sub directories and files.So basically you should understand what this folder contains. my everything you will find that is your slash ( / ) which is called the front slash or mount point Or Root. Under than mount point you will find a different directories.For open a root directory slash ( / ).

You type command in Terminal :-

$cd /

Then type :-

/$ls (एल एस)

Now you can see a Linux directory structure or directory tree of the Linux file system appears on the terminal

Note:- Some files system and directories structure In one Linux distributions may be Different from other Linux distributions.

1. / – Root

Every single file and directory starts from the root directory.

Only root user has write privilege under this directory.

Please note that /root is root user’s home directory, which is not same as /.

2. /bin – User Binaries

Contains binary executables.

Common linux commands you need to use in single-user modes are located under this directory.

Commands used by all the users of the system are located here.

For example: ps, ls, ping, grep, cp.

3. /sbin – System Binaries

Just like /bin, /sbin also contains binary executables.

But, the linux commands located under this directory are used typically by system aministrator, for system maintenance purpose.

For example: iptables, reboot, fdisk, ifconfig, swapon

4. /etc – Configuration Files

Contains configuration files required by all programs.

This also contains startup and shutdown shell scripts used to start/stop individual programs.

For example: /etc/resolv.conf, /etc/logrotate.conf

5. /dev – Device Files

Contains device files.

These include terminal devices, usb, or any device attached to the system.

For example: /dev/tty1, /dev/usbmon0

6. /proc – Process Information

Contains information about system process.

This is a pseudo filesystem contains information about running process. For example: /proc/{pid} directory contains information about the process with that particular pid.

This is a virtual filesystem with text information about system resources. For example: /proc/uptime

7. /var – Variable Files

var stands for variable files.

Content of the files that are expected to grow can be found under this directory.

This includes — system log files (/var/log); packages and database files (/var/lib); emails (/var/mail); print queues (/var/spool); lock files (/var/lock); temp files needed across reboots (/var/tmp);

8. /tmp – Temporary Files

Directory that contains temporary files created by system and users.

Files under this directory are deleted when system is rebooted.

9. /usr – User Programs

Contains binaries, libraries, documentation, and source-code for second level programs.

/usr/bin contains binary files for user programs. If you can’t find a user binary under /bin, look under /usr/bin. For example: at, awk, cc, less, scp

/usr/sbin contains binary files for system administrators. If you can’t find a system binary under /sbin, look under /usr/sbin. For example: atd, cron, sshd, useradd, userdel

/usr/lib contains libraries for /usr/bin and /usr/sbin

/usr/local contains users programs that you install from source. For example, when you install apache from source, it goes under /usr/local/apache2

10. /home – Home Directories

Home directories for all users to store their personal files.

For example: /home/john, /home/nikita

11. /boot – Boot Loader Files

Contains boot loader related files.

Kernel initrd, vmlinux, grub files are located under /boot

For example: initrd.img-2.6.32-24-generic, vmlinuz-2.6.32-24-generic

12. /lib – System Libraries

Contains library files that supports the binaries located under /bin and /sbin

Library filenames are either ld* or lib.so.

For example: ld-2.11.1.so, libncurses.so.5.7

13. /opt – Optional add-on Applications

opt stands for optional.

Contains add-on applications from individual vendors.

add-on applications should be installed under either /opt/ or /opt/ sub-directory.

14. /mnt – Mount Directory

Temporary mount directory where sysadmins can mount filesystems.

15. /media – Removable Media Devices

Temporary mount directory for removable devices.

For examples, /media/cdrom for CD-ROM; /media/floppy for floppy drives; /media/cdrecorder for CD writer

16. /srv – Service Data

srv stands for service.

Contains server specific services related data.

For example, /srv/cvs contains CVS related data.

-: Terminal:-

The Terminal is an interface in which you can type and execute text-based commands.

Or We can say on the Terminal we can type the commands or can do CUI (Command User Interface) work.

How to open terminal ?

1.Open the dashboard or application Window by using Super key (That is Known as Window logo button aur Start button)

2.Type Terminal.

or

You can use the keyboard shortcut Ctrl + Alt + T key for open the Terminal window.You can open the Terminal by Using right click on the monitor screen and select Open Terminal option.

-: Command :-

Linux command is a series of character consists of word (that you type). Linux commands are case sensitive. That is CP is different from cp. As you know In Windows, commands are not case sensitive, Windows not accept same commands or name, that will message you the directory already exist.

Finally we can say LINUX operating system accept the same commands or name, which means you can create multiple folders with one name or same name.

Now we learn how to use the commands on Terminal or working with CUI / CLI (Character User interface / Command Line Interface) :--------------------

Let us now start:-

1. pwd (Present working directory) -

To find out which directory you are currently working. Or We can say this command prints the absolute path name of your current working directory.

Type syntax:-

$pwd ↩

2. mkdir (Make directory) -

To create a folder and subfolders or directory and subdirectories. In Linux opearating system we can create same directories but not in windows (Microsoft Windows), because Linux Os files or directories are case sensitive so we can type for create or make a directory.

Note:- mkdir is an internal dos command that creates folders. In dos mkdir and md are two form of command but mkdir is the Linux command not md [it means only mkdir command works in Linux Os but dos accepts both commands mkdir and md for create folder or subfolder. Remember Folder is also known as directory/parent directory/main directory and subfolder known as subdirectory/child directory.]

Note:- बना हुआ पहला फोल्डर, "मेन फोल्डर /डायरेक्टरी/पैरेंट डायरेक्टरी/मेन डायरेक्टरी के नाम से जाना जाता है ,तथा इसके अंदर बने हुए सारे फोल्डर, सबफ़ोल्डर/सब डायरेक्टरी/चाइल्ड डायरेक्टरी" के नाम से जाने जाते है.

Type syntax:-

$mkdir Directory Name↩

$mkdir A↩

$mkdir a↩

💢 For create Multiple directories / Main folders / Parent directories in one time :-

Type syntax:-

$mkdir I Dir II Dir III Dir ........ ↩

$mkdir A B C .........↩

💢 To create a number of Directories by using mkdir command in one time and create Multiple child directories under the Main folders/ Parent directories:-

Type syntax:-

$mkdir Main dir ↩

$mkdir Main dir/Child dir Main dir/Child dir Main dir/Child Dir↩

$mkdir A↩

$mkdir A/B A/C A/D↩

Note:- First you will create main dir A, Then you will create child dir B,C,D under the Parent Directory

💢 If you want to create Parent directory and child directories in one time according to given below structure

then you:-

Type syntax:-

$mkdir -p Main dir/Child dir/Child dir Child dir/Child dir Child Dir↩

$mkdir -p A/B/E C/F D↩

Note:- The means of letter -p is Parent directory

Here first create a parent directory 'A' and then creates all sub directories, if there are already exist parent directory then it will be not created and creates all sub directories or child directories.

💢 If you want display or view all created directory and sub directories on terminal window (print a message on terminal at the time of creation folder and subfolders.):-

then you:-

Type syntax:-

$mkdir -pv Main dir/Child dir/Child dir Child dir/Child dir Child Dir↩

$mkdir -pv A/B/E C/F D↩

Note:- (-p means parent and v means View)

3. cd (Change directory) -

We can use cd command in different types:-

For change directories or open any folder or subfolders.

For go back to home (parent)directory from sub directories or child directories in one time.

For go back to home (parent)directory from sub directories or child directories in step by step.In simple words we can say when you want open any folder or directory (want move from one directory to other directory), go back (exit) from all sub directories and move on to parent directory in one time or step by step then we use this command.

For change directories or open any folder or subfolders.

Type syntax:-

$cd A↩

~/a$cd D↩

~/a/d$

💢 For Change or open many Directories/folders or move to more subdirectories in one time:-

Type syntax:-

$cd Parent dir/child dir/child di↩

For go back to home (parent)directory from sub directories or child directories in one time.

For go back to home (parent)directory from sub directories or child directories in step by step.

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Thursday, November 14, 2019

Operating System (CUI) Dos / Unix / Linux Operating System Full Notes For O level and CCC

We can operate the System in two ways:-

GUI and CUI are two types of User Interfaces. GUI stands for Graphical

1. GUI ( Graphical User Interface)-

Windows 1

Windows 2

Windows 3

Windows 3.1

Windows 95

Windows 98

Windows ME

Windows 2000

Windows XP

Windows Vista

Windows 7

Windows 8

Windows 8.1

Windows 10

Windows 1

Windows 2

Windows 3

Windows 3.1

Windows 95

Windows 98

Windows ME

Windows 2000

Windows XP

Windows Vista

Windows 7

Windows 8

Windows 8.1

Windows 10

2. CUI ( Character User Interface)-

Advantage of Linux:-

Disadvantage of Linux:-

Why should you learn Linux ?

⏪ -: Elements of Linux: - ⏩

Kernel:-

Shell:-

-: File System & File Structure :-

1. / – Root

Every single file and directory starts from the root directory. Only root user has write privilege under this directory. Please note that /root is root user’s home directory, which is not same as /.

2. /bin – User Binaries

Contains binary executables. Common linux commands you need to use in single-user modes are located under this directory. Commands used by all the users of the system are located here. For example: ps, ls, ping, grep, cp.

3. /sbin – System Binaries

Just like /bin, /sbin also contains binary executables. But, the linux commands located under this directory are used typically by system aministrator, for system maintenance purpose. For example: iptables, reboot, fdisk, ifconfig, swapon

4. /etc – Configuration Files

Contains configuration files required by all programs. This also contains startup and shutdown shell scripts used to start/stop individual programs. For example: /etc/resolv.conf, /etc/logrotate.conf

5. /dev – Device Files

Contains device files. These include terminal devices, usb, or any device attached to the system. For example: /dev/tty1, /dev/usbmon0

6. /proc – Process Information

7. /var – Variable Files

8. /tmp – Temporary Files

Directory that contains temporary files created by system and users. Files under this directory are deleted when system is rebooted.

9. /usr – User Programs

10. /home – Home Directories

Home directories for all users to store their personal files. For example: /home/john, /home/nikita

11. /boot – Boot Loader Files

Contains boot loader related files. Kernel initrd, vmlinux, grub files are located under /boot For example: initrd.img-2.6.32-24-generic, vmlinuz-2.6.32-24-generic

12. /lib – System Libraries

Contains library files that supports the binaries located under /bin and /sbin Library filenames are either ld* or lib*.so.* For example: ld-2.11.1.so, libncurses.so.5.7

13. /opt – Optional add-on Applications

opt stands for optional. Contains add-on applications from individual vendors. add-on applications should be installed under either /opt/ or /opt/ sub-directory.

14. /mnt – Mount Directory

Temporary mount directory where sysadmins can mount filesystems.

15. /media – Removable Media Devices

Temporary mount directory for removable devices. For examples, /media/cdrom for CD-ROM; /media/floppy for floppy drives; /media/cdrecorder for CD writer

16. /srv – Service Data

srv stands for service. Contains server specific services related data. For example, /srv/cvs contains CVS related data.

-: Terminal:-

The Terminal is an interface in which you can type and execute text-based commands. Or We can say on the Terminal we can type the commands or can do CUI (Command User Interface) work. How to open terminal ?

1. pwd (Present working directory) -

2. mkdir (Make directory) -

💢 For create Multiple directories / Main folders / Parent directories in one time :-

💢 To create a number of Directories by using mkdir command in one time and create Multiple child directories under the Main folders/ Parent directories:-

💢 If you want to create Parent directory and child directories in one time according to given below structure

Information & Technology Computer Institution's
In front of Gandhi Bhawan, Numaish Chauraha Hardoi.
☎ +91 9026728220, +91 8423606968

Every single file and directory starts from the root directory.

Only root user has write privilege under this directory.

Please note that /root is root user’s home directory, which is not same as /.

Contains binary executables.

Common linux commands you need to use in single-user modes are located under this directory.

Commands used by all the users of the system are located here.

For example: ps, ls, ping, grep, cp.

Just like /bin, /sbin also contains binary executables.

But, the linux commands located under this directory are used typically by system aministrator, for system maintenance purpose.

For example: iptables, reboot, fdisk, ifconfig, swapon

Contains configuration files required by all programs.

This also contains startup and shutdown shell scripts used to start/stop individual programs.

For example: /etc/resolv.conf, /etc/logrotate.conf

Contains device files.

These include terminal devices, usb, or any device attached to the system.

For example: /dev/tty1, /dev/usbmon0

Directory that contains temporary files created by system and users.

Files under this directory are deleted when system is rebooted.

Home directories for all users to store their personal files.

For example: /home/john, /home/nikita

Contains boot loader related files.

Kernel initrd, vmlinux, grub files are located under /boot

For example: initrd.img-2.6.32-24-generic, vmlinuz-2.6.32-24-generic

Contains library files that supports the binaries located under /bin and /sbin

Library filenames are either ld* or lib.so.

For example: ld-2.11.1.so, libncurses.so.5.7

opt stands for optional.

Contains add-on applications from individual vendors.

add-on applications should be installed under either /opt/ or /opt/ sub-directory.

Temporary mount directory for removable devices.

For examples, /media/cdrom for CD-ROM; /media/floppy for floppy drives; /media/cdrecorder for CD writer

srv stands for service.

Contains server specific services related data.

For example, /srv/cvs contains CVS related data.

The Terminal is an interface in which you can type and execute text-based commands.

Or We can say on the Terminal we can type the commands or can do CUI (Command User Interface) work.

How to open terminal ?